At Origins of Old Livonia: Initial Phase of Struggle for Its Territory Development
Authors
- M. B. Bessudnova Yaroslav-the-Wise Novgorod State University, Veliky Novgorod, Russia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0207-1948
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.34680/Caurus-2024-3(4)-11-33Keywords:
Old Livonia, German expansion, Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania, Veliky Novgorod, papacy, Livonian colonization methodsAbstract
The article discusses the early stages of the history of Medieval Livonia, during which it was involved in external expansion from neighboring countries. Along with the German invasion, which is well known due to the popular concept of the “Drive to the East”, the development of Podvinye, Zachudye, Northern Estonia, coastal islands, Finland and the Neva basin inhabited by pagan tribes, besides the Germans, Polochans, Lithuanians, Novgorodians, Danes and Swedes, who caught themselves in a state of fierce competition, also claimed. The most successful were the efforts of the Danes and Germans, who finally laid the foundations for Livonian nationhood. Among the prerequisites for success were a higher level of mobilization resources than other combatants had, thanks to the support of the Papacy, as well as the development of economic, administrative, and fortification systems in the occupied territories, accompanied by the Christianization and subjugation of the local population. These methods were more effective than the “soft colonization” by Polotsk, Lithuania, and Novgorod, as manifested in poliudie (collection of tribute), and did not contribute to the consolidation of a foreign element in the territories of future Old Livonia.
Downloads
Author Biography
M. B. Bessudnova, Yaroslav-the-Wise Novgorod State University, Veliky Novgorod, Russia
Doctor of Historical Sciences, docent, professor of the Department of World History and International Relations
e-mail: magistrmb@gmail.com
References
Afanasieva M. V. (comp.). (2023). Naslediye Orekhovetskogo mira. X mezhregional'nyye gubernskiye chteniya, posvyashchennyye 700-letiyu zaklyucheniyu Orekhovetskogo mirnogo dogovora [The Legacy of the Orekhovets Peace Treaty. The 10th Interregional Provincial Readings Dedicated to the 700th Anniversary of the Conclusion of the Orekhovets Peace Treaty]. Saint Petersburg: Papirus Publ. 140 p. (In Russian).
Arbusow L. (1912). Ocherk istorii Liflyandii, Estlyandii I Kurlyandii [Outline of the History of Livonia, Estonia, and Courland]. Saint Petersburg: Tipografiya M. M. Stasyulevicha Publ. 305 p. (In Russian).
Arbusow L. (1918). Grundriss der Geschichte Liv-, Est- und Kurlands [Outline of the History of Livonia, Estonia, and Courland]. 4 verbesserte und erweiterte Ausgabe. Riga: Jonck und Poliewsky. 372 p.
Baranov A. (2017). Die Frühzeit des Deutschen Ordens in Livland und die Eroberung Kurlands. Ein peripheries Tätigkeitsfeld? [The Early Period of the Teutonic Order in Livonia and the Conquest of Courland. A Peripheral Field of Activity?]. Livland – eine Region am Ende der Welt? [Livonia – a Region at the End of the World?. Köln: Böhlau Publ. Pp. 315–346. (In German).
Benninghoven F. (1965). Der Orden der Schwertbrüder, Fratres Milicie Christi de Livonia [The Order of the Sword Brothers, Fratres Milicie Christi de Livonia]. Köln: Böhlau. 525 p. (In German).
Benninghoven F. (1992). Zur Rolle des Schwertbrüderordens und des Deutschen Ordens im politischen Gefüge Alt-Livlands [On the Role of the Sword Brothers and the Teutonic Order in the Political Structure of Old Livonia]. Zeitschrift für Ostforschung [Journal for Research on the East]. Vol. 41. H. 2. Pp. 161–185. (In German).
Benninghoven F. (1993). Über Veröffentlichungen zur Geschichte des Deutschen Ordens. Teil 1 [On Publications Concerning the History of the Teutonic Order; Part 1]. Zeitschrift für Ostforschung [Journal for Research on the East]. Vol. 42. H. 4. Pp. 576–599. https://doi.org/10.25627/19934245720 (In German).
Benninghoven F. (1994). Über Veröffentlichungen zur Geschichte des Deutschen Ordens. Teil 2 [On Publications Concerning the History of the Teutonic Order; Part 2]. Zeitschrift für Ostforschung [Journal for Research on the East]. Vol. 43. H. 3. Pp. 413–434. https://doi.org/10.25627/19944335840 (In German).
Bernotas R. (2013). Estonian small towns in the Middle Ages: archaeology and the history of urban defense. Ajalooline Ajakiri: the Estonian Historical Journali. Is. 3 (145). Pp. 265–297.
Bessudnova M. B. (2004). Rytsarstvo srednevekovoy Livonii [The Chivalry of Medieval Livonia]. Odissey. Chelovek v istorii [Odysseus. Man in History]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 84–97. (In Russian).
Bessudnova M. B. (2013). Livonskiy orden na nachal'nom etape svoyego sushchestvovaniya (1237–1270) [The Livonian Order at the Initial Stage of Its Existence (1237–1270)]. Ledovoye poboishche v zerkaleepokhi [The Battle on the Ice in the mirror of history]. Ed. by M. B. Bessudnova. Lipetsk: LSPU Publ. Pp. 182–199. (In Russian).
Bessudnova M. B. (ed.). (2013). Ledovoye poboishche v zerkale epokhi. Sbornik nauchnykh rabot, posvyashchennykh 770-letiyu bitvy na Chudskom ozere [The Battle on the Ice in the Mirror of the Era. Collection of Scientific Papers Dedicated to the 770th Anniversary of the Battle on Lake Peipus]. Lipetsk: Lipetsk SPU Publ. 295 p. (In Russian).
Bieber U. (2010). Der Deutsche Ritterorden – der «Erzfeind der mittelalterlichen Rus» [The Teutonic Order – the “Archenemy of Medieval Rus”]. Intertextuality, Reception and Performance: Interpretations and Texts of Medieval German Literature (Kalamazoo Papers 2007–2009). Göppingen: Kümmerle Publ. Pp. 157–170. (In German).
Biskup M. (ed.). (2002). Inflanty w średniowiezu. Władztwa zakonu krzyżackiego i biskupów [Livonia in the Middle Ages: The Rule of the Teutonic Order and the Bishops]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. 148 p. (In Polish).
Blomquist N. (2004). Is the Europeanization of the Baltic a Conjuncture or a Phenomenon of the Longue Durée? Or is there something missing in Braudel's «Historie Rhythmus Machinen»? Die Ostseeraum und Kontinentaleuropa 1100–1600. Einflußnahme – Rezeption – Wandel [The Baltic Region and Continental Europe 1100–1600. Influence – Reception – Change]. Schwerin: Helms Publ. Pp. 9–16.
Blomquist N. (2005). The Discovery of the Baltic. The Reception of a Catholic World-System in the European North. Leiden: Brill Publ. 774 p.
Bolte H. (2023). Bischofserhebungen und geistliche Landesherrschaften im spätmittelalterlichen Livland: Dorpat – Ösel – Kurland [Episcopal elevations and ecclesiastical sovereignties in late medieval Livonia: Dorpat – Ösel – Kurland]. Berlin: LIT Verlag. 788 s.
Bredis M. A. (2004). Livoniya i Pskov protiv yazycheskoy Litvy: Bitva pri Saule, 1236 god [Livonia and Pskov against Pagan Lithuania: The Battle of Saule, 1236]. Rossiya i Germaniya [Russia and Germany]. Vol. 3. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 15–43. (In Russian).
Bunge F. G. (1875). Der Orden der Schwertbrüder: Dessen Stiftung, Verfassung und Auflösung [The Order of the Sword Brothers: Its Foundation, Constitution, and Dissolution]. Leipzig: Verlag von E. Bidder. 100 p. (In German).
Buxhoeveden V. (2005). Bischof Albert von Riga und die Familie von Buxhoeveden im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert [Bishop Albert of Riga and the Buxhoeveden family in the 12th and 13th centuries]. Deutschland, Russland und das Baltikum: Beiträge zu einer Geshihtewehselvoller Beziehungen: Festshrift zum 85. Geburtstag von Peter Krupnikow [Germany, Russia, and the Baltic Region: Contributions to a History of Turbulent Relations. Festschrift for the 85th Birthday of Peter Krupnikov]. Köln: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Pp. 35–54. (In German).
Caune A. (2008). Archäologische Zeugnisse von Riga vor dem 13. Jahrhundert [Archaeological Evidence of Riga before the 13th Century]. Archaeologia Lituana. Vol. 9. Pp. 75–83. (In German).
Cheshikhin E. V. (1884–1887). Istoriya Livonii s drevneyshikh vremen [History of Livonia since ancient times]. Riga: Tipo-litografiya A. I. Lipinskogo Publ. (In Russian).
Christiansen Е. (1980). The Northern Crusades: The Baltic and Catolic frontier, 1100–1525. London: Macmillan & Co Ltd Publ. 304 p.
Czaja R. (2007). Der Deutsche Orden als Stadtherr im Reich, in Preußen und Livland [The Teutonic Order as City Lord in the Empire, in Prussia, and Livonia]. Die Ritterordenals Träger der Herrschaft. Territorien, Grundbesitz und Kirche [The Military Orders as Bearers of Power. Territories, Land Ownership, and the Church]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 127– 140. (In German).
Danilevskiy I. N. (2000). Russkie zemli glazami sovremennikov i potomkov (XII–XIV vv.): kurs lektsiy [Russian lands through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (12th–14th centuries): collection of lectures]. Moscow: Aspekt Press Publ. 387 p. (In Russian).
Dircks B. (1986). Russisch-livländischen Beziehungen in der zweiten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts [Russian-Livonian Relations in the Second Half of the 13th Century]. Jahrbuch des baltischen Deutschtums 1985 [Yearbookof Baltic-German culture 1985]. Vol. 33. Pp. 25–34. (In German).
Dubonis A. (2012). Das Grenzgebiet zwischen Litauen und dem Deutschen Orden: soziale, wirtschaftliche, administrative, ethnische und kulturelle Kommunikation in den Jahren 1290–1422 [The Border Region between Lithuania and the Teutonic Order: Social, Economic, Administrative, Ethnic, and Cultural Communication, 1290–1422]. Tannenberg – Grunwald – Žalgiris 1410: Krieg und Frieden im Späten Mittelalter [Tannenberg – Grunwald – Žalgiris 1410: War and Peace in the Late Middle Ages]. Hardcover: Harrassowitz Verlag Publ. Pp. 53–69. (Quellen und Studien / Deutsches Historisches Institut Warschau; Vol. 26). (In German).
Dubonis A. (2014). Dve modeli litovskoy ekspansii na Rusi (XIII — nachalo XIV veka): Ovladeniye Polotskom [Two models of Lithuanian expansion in Rus' (13th – early 14th centuries): Conquest of Polotsk and Novogrudok]. Istoricheskiy vestnik [Historical reporter]. Vol. 7 (154): Lithuania, Russia and Poland in the 13th–16th centuries. Pp. 54–85. (In Russian).
Dvornichenko A. I. (2023). Kukeynos, Gerzike I granitsy drevnerusskoy oykumeny [Kukenois, Gerzike and the Borderlines of Ancient Russian Ecumene]. Novoye Proshloye [The New Past]. No 4. Pp. 126–157. (In Russian).
Ehrensvärd U., Nurminen J., Kokkonen P. (2010). Die Ostsee: 2000 Jahre Seefahrt, Handel und Kultur [The Baltic Sea: 2000 Years of Seafaring, Trade, and Culture]. Berlin: National Geographic Deutschland Publ. 288 p. (In German).
Fonnesberg-Schmidt I. (2007). The popes and the Baltic crusades 1147–1254. Leiden: Brill Academic Publ. 287 p.
Gadzyatskiy S. S. (1940). Vodskaya i Izhorskaya zemli Novgorodskogo gosudarstva [The Vodsk and Izhora Lands of the Novgorod State]. Istoricheskie Zapiski. Vol. 6. Moscow: Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union Publ. Pp. 100–148. (In Russian).
Gassowska M. (2009). Christianisierung und Eroberung Estlands (1150–1250) [Christianization and Conquest of Estonia]. Cultus sanctorum: cults, saints, patronage, hagiography. Warszawa. Pp. 249–286. (In German).
Gassowska M. (2011). Dziepowszednia oficjal nawizja misjichry stianizacyjnej w Inflantach XII–XIII w. [Everyday Life and the Official Vision of the Christianization Mission in Livonia, 12th–13th Centuries]. Antyk, prawda i falsz w sredniowieczu: materialy Seminariów Mediewistycznych im. Alicji Karlowskiej-Kamzowej [Antiquity, truth and false in the Middle Ages: The Alicja Karłowska-Kamzowamedievalistic seminar materials]. Poznán: Wydawnictwo PTPN Publ. Pp. 115–124. (In Polish).
Genrikh Latviyskiy. (1938). Khronika Livonii [Livonian Chronicle]. Moscow, Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union Publ. 608 p. (In Russian).
Górski К. (1983). Probleme der Christianisierung in Preussen, Livland und Litauen [Problems of Christianization in Prussia, Livonia, and Lithuania]. Die Rolle der Ritterorden in der Christianisierung und Kolonisierung des Ostseegebiets [The Role of the Military Orders in the Christianization and Colonization of the Baltic Region]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 9–34. (In German).
Hansen M. K. (2009). Die Kalmarer Union und der Deutsche Orden 1410–1423: Die Estlandfrage [The Kalmar Union and the Teutonic Order, 1410–1423: The Estland Question]. Forschungen zur baltischen Geschichte [Studies on Baltic History]. Vol. 4. Pp. 11–39. (In German).
Hellmann M. (1954). Der Deutsche Orden und Köningskrönung des Mindaugas [The Teutonic Order and the Coronation of Mindaugas]. Zeitschrift für Ostforschung [Journal for Research on the East]. Vol. 3(3). Pp. 387–396.
Hellmann M. (hg.). (1989). Studien Über die Anfänge der Mission in Livland [Studies on the Beginnings of the Mission in Livonia]. Sigmaringen: Jan Thorbecke Verlag Publ. 168 p. (Vorträge und Forschungen. Sonderband, 37). (In German).
Hellmann M. (1989a). Bischof Meinhard und die Eigenart der kirchlichen Organisation in den baltischen Ländern [Bishop Meinhard and the Distinctiveness of Ecclesiastical Organization in the Baltic Countries]. Gli Inizi del Christianesimo in Livonia-Lettonia [The Beginnings of Christianity in Livonia-Latvia]. Vol. 1: Atti e documenti [Acts and documents]. Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana Publ. Pp. 9–30. (In German).
Hellmann M. (1989b). Die Anfänge christlicher Mission in den baltischen Ländern [The Beginnings of Christian Mission in the Baltic Countries]. Studien Über die Anfänge der Mission in Livland [Studies on the Beginnings of the Mission in Livonia]. Sigmaringen: Jan Thorbecke Verlag Publ. Pp. 7–38. (Vorträge und Forschungen. Sonderband, 37). (In German).
Hellmann M. (1991). Der Deutsche Orden im politischen Gefüge Alt-Livland [The Teutonic Order in the Political Structure of Old Livonia]. Zeitschrift für Ostforschung [Journal for Research on the East]. Vol. 40. H. 5. Pp. 481–489. (In German).
Henricus de Letis. (1853). Chronicon Livonicum vetus. Scriptores rerum Livonicarum. Vol. 1. Riga, Leipzig. 906 p. (In German; in Latin).
Herrmann Ch. (hg.). (2024). Burgen in Livland: Mittelalterliche Wehrbauten in Estland und Lettland [Castles in Livonia: Medieval Fortifications in Estonia and Latvia]. Ed. by Ch. Herrmann. Petersberg: Michael Imhof Verlag. 288 p. (In German).
Hesch E. (1995). Vostochnaya politika Nemetskogo ordena v XIII v. [Eastern policy of the German order in the XIII century]. Knyaz' Aleksandr Nevskiy i yego epokha: Materialy nauchno-prakticheskoy konferentsii [Prince Alexander Nevsky and His Era: Research and Materials]. St. Petersburg: Dmitriy Bulanin Publ. Pp. 65–74. (In Russian).
Hubatsch W. (1971). Die deutsche Siedlung in Livland im Mittelalter [The German Settlement in Livonia in the Middle Ages]. Deutsche Ostsiedlung im Mittelalter und Neuzeit [German Eastward Expansion in the Middle Ages and Modern Era]. Bonn: Böhlau Publ. Pp. 107–129. (Studien zum Deutschtum im Osten, 8). (In German).
Hucker B. U. (1989). Der Zisterzienserabt Bertold, Bischof von Livland, und der erste Livlandkreuzzug [The Cistercian Abbot Bertold, Bishop of Livonia, and the First Livonian Crusade]. Studien Über die Anfänge der Mission in Livland [Studies on the Beginnings of the Mission in Livonia]. Sigmaringen: Jan Thorbecke Verlag Publ. Pp. 39–64. Vorträge und Forschungen. Sonderband, 37). https://doi.org/10.11588/vuf-sb.1989.0.18407 (In German).
Jähnig B. (1997). Der Kampf des Deutschen Ordens um die Schutzherrschaft über die livländischen Bistümer [The Struggle of the Teutonic Order for the Protectorate over the Livonian Bishoprics]. Ritterorden und Kirche im Mittelalter [Military Orders and the Church in the Middle Ages]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 97–111. (Ordines Militares. Colloquia Torunensia Historica, 9). (In German).
Jähnig B. (2002). Das Ringen zwischen Deutschem Orden und bischofischer Gewalt in Livland und Preussen [The Struggle Between the Teutonic Order and Episcopal Authority in Livonia and Prussia]. Römische Quartalschrift für christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte [Roman Quarterly for Christian Archaeology and Church History]. Vol. 97. Pp. 215–237. (In German).
Jähnig B. (2011a). Verfassung und Verwaltung des Deutschen Ordens und seine Herrschaft in Livland [Constitution and Administration of the Teutonic Order and Its Rule in Livonia]. Münster: LIT Verlag Publ. 336 p. (Schriften der Baltischen Historischen Kommission, 16). (In German).
Jähnig B. (2011b). Memel als Angriffspunkt der Litauer während der Zeit des Deutschen Ordens [Memel as a Target of Lithuanian Attacks during the Teutonic Order's Era]. Memel als Brücke zu den baltischen Ländern: Kulturgeschichte Klaipedas vom Mittelalter bis ins 20. Jahrhundert [Memel as a Bridge to the Baltic Countries: Cultural History of Klaipėda from the Middle Ages to the 20th Century]. Osnabrück: Fibre Publ. Pp. 35–48. (Tagungsberichte der Historischen Kommission für ost- und westpreussische Landesforschung, 26). (In German).
Kazakova N. A. (1971). Polotskaya zemlya i pribaltiyskiye plemena v nachale XIII veka [The Land of Polotsk and the Baltic Tribes in the Early 13th Century]. Problemy istorii feodal'noy Rossii: sbornik statey k 60-letiyu V. V. Mavrodina [Issues in the History of Feudal Russia: A Collection of Articles for the 60th Anniversary of V. V. Mavrodin]. Leningrad: LSU Publ. Pp. 82–92. (In Russian).
Keysler F. (1900). Okonchaniye pervonachal'nogo russkogo vladychestva v Pribaltiyskom kraye v XII stoletii [The end of the initial Russian rule in the Baltic region in the 12th century]. Saint Petersburg: Tipografiya Imperatorskoy Akademii nauk Publ. 132 p. (In Russian).
Kłoczowski J. (2004). The Christianisation of the Baltic Region against the Background of the Medieval Christianisation of Europe. Christianization of the Baltic Region. Pułtusk. P. 9–20. (Castri Dominae Nostrae Litterae Annales, 1).
Konoplenko A. A. (2005a). Rol' Ordena mechenostsev v zavoevanii Livonii [The Role of the Sword Brothers Order in the Conquest of Livonia]. Voenno-istoricheskie issledovaniya v Povolzh'e [Military and Historical Study of the Volga Region]. Vol. 6. Saratov: SSU Publ. Pp. 9–154. (In Russian).
Konoplenko A. A. (2005b). Orden mechenostsev i episkopat: osobennosti religioznoy legitimizatsii nemetskogo gospodstva v Livonii [The Order of the Swordsmen and the Episcopate: Peculiarities of Religious Legitimization of German Domination in Livonia]. Mnogoobraziye religioznogo opyta i problem sakralizatsii i desakralizatsii vlasti v khristianskom i musul'manskom mire (Opyt Rossii i Yevropy) [The Diversity of Religious Experience and the Problems of Sacralization and Desacralization of Power in the Christian and Muslim Worlds (The Experience of Russia and Europe)]. Part 2. Saratov: Nauchnaya kniga Publ. Pp. 56–62. (In Russian).
Konoplenko A. A. (2006). K voprosu o prichinakh i dvizhushchikh silakh nachal'nogo etapa nemetsko-katolicheskoy ekspansii v Livonii (konets XII – nachalo XIII v.) [On the issue of the causes and driving forces of the initial stage of the German-Catholic expansion in Livonia (late 12th – early 13th centuries)]. Novy vek: istoriya glazami molodykh [New Century: History Through the Eyes of the Young]. Vol. 3. Saratov: SSU Publ. Pp. 120–132. (In Russian).
Kreem J. (2003). Stadt und Landesherr als Geschäftspartner. Die Handelsangelegenheiten in den Beziehungen zwischen dem Deutschen Orden und der Stadt Reval [City and Territorial Lord as Business Partners: Trade Affairs in the Relations between the Teutonic Order and the City of Reval]. Städtisches Leben im Baltikum zur Zeit der Hanse: Zwölf Beiträge zum 12. Baltischen Seminar [Urban Life in the Baltic Region During the Hanseatic Period: Twelve Contributions to the 12th Baltic Seminar]. Lüneburg: Carl-Schirren-Gesellschaft Publ. Pp. 93–112. (In German).
Kreem J. (2016). Was ist Stadtgeschichte in Estland? [What is Urban History in Estonia?]. Stadtgeschichte des Baltikums oder baltische Stadtgeschichte? [Urban History of the Baltic States or Baltic Urban History?]. Marburg: Verlag Herder-Institut Publ. Pp. 61–73. (In German).
Lind J. H. (2004). Collaboration and confrontation between East and West on the Baltic Rim as a result of the Baltic Crusades. Die Ostseeraum und Kontinentaleuropa 1100–1600. Einflußnahme – Rezeption – Wandel [The Baltic Region and Continental Europe 1100–1600. Influence – Reception – Change]. Schwerin: Helms Publ. Pp. 123–126.
Lindkvist T. (2004). Christinianisation and State-Building in the Baltic Sea Area. Die Ostseeraum und Kontinentaleuropa 1100–1600. Einflußnahme – Rezeption – Wandel [The Baltic Region and Continental Europe 1100–1600. Influence – Reception – Change]. Schwerin: Helms Publ. Pp. 127–130.
Lowmianskij, H. (1974). Rol' rytsarskikh ordenov v Pribaltike (XIII–XIV vv.) [The Role of Knightly Orders in the Baltics (13th–14th Centuries)]. Pol'sha i Rus': Cherty obshchnosti i svoyeobraziya v istoricheskom razvitii Rusi i Pol'shi XII–XIV vv. [Poland and Rus': Features of Commonality and Peculiarity in the Historical Development of Rus' and Poland in the 12th–14th Centuries]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 67–79. (In Russian).
Mäesalu M. (2011). Päpstliche Gewalt im Kreuzzugsgebiet: Gründete Wilhelm von Modena in Estland einen “Pufferstaat“? [Papal Authority in the Crusade Region: Did William of Modena Establish a “Buffer State” in Estonia?]. Forschungen zur baltischen Geschichte [Research on Baltic History]. Vol. 6. Pp. 11–30. (In German).
Matuzova V. I. (1997). Tevtonskiy orden i Shvetsiya [The Teutonic Order and Sweden]. Sredniye veka. Vol. 60. Pp. 223–229. (In Russian).
Matuzova V. I. (2004). Srednevekovyy Nemetskiy orden v sovremennoy mezhdunarodnoy istoriografii [The Medieval German Order in Modern International Historiography]. Drevneyshiye gosudarstva Vostochnoy Yevropy. 2002: Genealogiya kak forma istoricheskoy pamyati [The Earliest States of Eastern Europe. 2002: Genealogy as a Form of Historical Memory]. Moscow: Vostochnaya literatura Publ. Pp. 296–310. (In Russian).
Misāns I. (2002). Alt-Livland und die Hanse [Old Livonia and the Hanseatic League]. Die baltischen Staaten im Schnittpunkt der Enticklungen. Vergangenheit und Gegenwart [The Baltic States at the Intersection of Developments: Past and Present]. Basel: Schwabe Publ. Pp. 35–45. (In German).
Misāns I. (2003). Die Städte als politischer Faktor in Livland zur Hansezeit [The Cities as a Political Factor in Livonia during the Hanseatic Period]. Städtisches Leben im Baltikum zur Zeit der Hanse: zwölf Beiträge zum 12. Baltischen Seminar [Urban Life in the Baltic Region during the Hanseatic Period: Twelve Contributions to the 12th Baltic Seminar]. Lüneburg: Carl-Schirren-Gesellschaft Publ. Pp. 21–42. (In German).
Misans I. (2016). Deutschordensburgen in Livland [Teutonic Order Castles in Livonia]. Ritter, Verwalter und Repräsentanten – Priester und Seelsorger [Knights, Administrators and Representatives – Priests and Pastors]. Weimar: VDG Publ. Pp. 59–76. (In German).
Mongayt A. L. (1958). K voprosu o russko-pribaltiyskikh svyazyakh v IX–XIII vv. [On the issue of Russian-Baltic relations in the 9th–13th centuries]. Voprosy Istorii. No. 6. Pp. 120–128. (In Russian).
Mugurevičs Ē. (1991). Die militärische Tätigkeit des Schwertbruderordens (1202–1236) [The Military Activities of the Order of the Sword Brothers (1202–1236)]. Das Kriegswesen der Ritterorden im Mittelalter [The Warfare of the Military Orders in the Middle Ages]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 125–132. (Ordines Militares. Colloquia Torunensia Historica, 6). (In German).
Mugurevich E. S. (1996). Yersikskoye knyazhestvo i problemy granits gosudarstva [The Yersik Principality and the Problems of State Borders]. Vostochnaya Evropa v drevnosti i srednevekov'ye. Politicheskaya struktura Drevnerusskogo gosudarstva. VIII Chteniya pamyati V. T. Pashuto [Eastern Europe in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The Political Structure of the Old Russian State. 8th Readings in Memory of V. T. Pashuto]. Moscow: IRH RAS Publ. Pp. 55–58. (In Russian).
Mühlen H. v. zur. (1991). Die Rolle Livlands in der deutschen und europäischen Geschichte [The Role of Livonia in German and European History]. Die Deutschen im Baltikum: Fünf Vorträge [The Germans in the Baltic: Five Lectures]. München: Haus des Deutschen Ostens Publ. Pp. 19–41. (In German).
Mühlen H. v. zur. (2002). Livland von der Christianisierung bis zum Ende seiner Selbstständigkeit (etwa 1180–1561) [Livonia from Christianization to the End of Its Autonomy (circa 1180–1561)]. Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas. Baltische Länder [German History in Eastern Europe. Baltic Countries]. Berlin: Siedler Publ. Pp. 26–172. (In German).
Murray A. V. (2013). The Sword Brothers at War: Observations on the Military Activity of the Knighthood of Christ in the Conquest of Livonia and Estonia (1203–1227). Ordines Militares: Colloquia Thoruniensia Historica: yearbook for the study of the military orders. Vol. 18. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 27–38.
Nazarova E. L. (1995a). Russko-latgal'skiye kontakty v XII—XIII vv. v svete genealogii knyazey Yersike i Koknese [Russian-Latgalian Contacts in the 12th–13th Centuries in Light of the Genealogy of the Princes of Jersike and Koknese]. Drevneyshiye gosudarstva Vostochnoy Yevropy: Materialy i issledovaniya. 1992–1993 gg. [The Earliest States of Eastern Europe: Materials and Research. 1992–1993]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 182–196. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. L. (1995b). Region Zapadnaya Dvina v epokhu smeny politicheskogo vliyaniya [The Western Dvina Region in an Era of Changing Political Influence]. Kontaktnye zony v istorii Vostochnoy Evropy: perekrestki politicheskikh i kul'turnykh vzaimovliyaniy [Contact Zones in the History of Eastern Europe: Intersections of Political and Cultural Interactions]. Moscow: IRH RAS Publ. Pp. 71–82. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. L. (1996). Latgal'skaya dan' v sisteme otnosheniy mezhdu Novgorodom i Pskovom [Latgalian Tribute in the System of Relations between Novgorod and Pskov]. Vostochnaya Yevropa v drevnosti i srednevekov'ye. Politicheskaya struktura Drevnerusskogo gosudarstva: tezisy dokladov VIII Chtenii pamyati V. T. Pashuto [Eastern Europe in Antiquity and the Middle Ages: The Political Structure of the Old Russian State: Abstracts of the VIII Readings in Memory of V. T. Pashuto]. Moscow: IRH RAS Publ. Pp. 65–66. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. L. (1998). Mesto Livonii v otnosheniyakh mezhdu Novgorodom i Pskovom. Pervaya chetvert' XIII v. [The Place of Livonia in the Relations between Novgorod and Pskov. First Quarter of the 13th Century]. Istoricheskaya arkheologiya: Traditsii i perspektivy. K 80-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya D. A. Avdusina [Historical Archaeology: Traditions and Perspectives. On the 80th Anniversary of D. A. Avdusin's Birth]. Moscow: Pamyatniki istoricheskoy mysli Publ. Pp. 350–360. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. L. (1999a). Krestovyy pokhod na Rus' v 1240 g. (organizatsiya i plany) [The Crusade Against Rus' in 1240: Organization and Plans]. Vostochnaya Yevropa v istoricheskoy retrospektive: k 80-letiyu V. T. Pashuto [Eastern Europe in Historical Perspective: On the 80th Anniversary of V. T. Pashuto]. Moscow: Yazyki russkoy kul'tury Publ. Pp. 190–201. (In Russian).
Nazarova, E. L. (1999b). Shvedskiye interesy v krestonosnom nastuplenii na Estoniyu (vtoraya polovina XII veka) [Swedish Interests in the Crusader Offensive against Estonia (Second Half of the 12th Century)]. Severnaya Evropa. Problemy istorii [Northern Europe. Issues in History]. Vol. 3. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 24–30. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. (2001). The Crusades against Votias and Ingrians in the thirteenth century. Crusade and conversation on the Baltic frontier 1150–1500. Aldershot: Burlington Publ. Pp. 177–195.
Nazarova E. L. (2002a). Data osnovaniya Rigi v kontekste istorii krestovykh pokhodov [The Date of Riga's Foundation in the Context of the History of the Crusades]. Balto-slavyanskiye issledovaniya [Balto-Slavic Studies]. Moscow: Indrik Publ. Pp. 29–41. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. L. (2002b). Krestovyye pokhody za r. Narvu v XIII v.: plany i ikh realizatsiya [Crusades Beyond the Narva River in the 13th Century: Plans and Their Implementation]. Metamorfozy istorii. Vol. 2. Vena, Pskov. Pp. 21–42. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. L. (2002c). Pskov i Livoniya v 40–90-e gg. XIII v. [Pskov and Livonia in the 40–90s of the 13th century]. Civitas et castrum ad Mare Balticum: Baltijas arheologijas un vēstures problēmas dzelzs laikmetā un viduslaikos [Civitas et castrum ad Mare Balticum: Baltic Archaeology and History Problems in the Iron Age and Middle Ages]. Riga: Latvijas Vēstures institūtaapgāds Publ. Pp. 591–609. (In Russian).
Nazarova E. L. (2003). Daniya v nastuplenii krestonostsev v Vostochnoy Pribaltike (1219 god) [Denmark in the Crusaders' Offensive in the Eastern Baltic (1219)]. Ot Drevney Rusi k Rossii novogo vremeni [From Ancient Rus' to Modern Russia]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 442–448. (In Russian).
Olesen J. E. (2013). Danish Law and Government in Medieval Estonia. Legislation and state formation: Norway and its neighbours in the Middle Ages. Trondheim: Fagbokforlaget Publ. Pp. 101–116.
Olesen J. E. (2022). Die schwedischen Kreuzzüge nach Finnland aus der Ostsee-Perspektive [The Swedish Crusades to Finland from the Baltic Sea Perspective]. The Expansion of the Faith: Crusading on the Frontiers of Latin Christendom in the High Middle Ages. Turnhout: Brepols Publ. Pp. 167–181. (In German).
Pashuto V. T. (2011). Rus'. Pribaltika. Papstvo: izbrannyye stat'i (Drevneyshiye gosudarstva Vostochnoy Yevropy, 2008 god) [Rus. The Baltics. The Papacy: Selected Articles (The Oldest States of Eastern Europe, 2008)]. Moscow: Dmitriy Pozharskiy Publ. 682 p. (In Russian).
Pavulan V. V. (1968). Khozyaystvennoye i politicheskoye znacheniye daugavskogo torgovogo puti v XIII–XVII vv. [Economic and Political Significance of the Daugava Trade Route in the 13th–17th Centuries]. Ekonomicheskiye svyazi Pribaltiki s Rossiyey [Economic Relations Between the Baltic States and Russia]. Riga: Zinatne Publ. Pp. 75–94. (In Russian).
Pistohlkors G. (2002). Die Deutschen in der Geschichte der baltischen Länder Estland und Lettland [The Germans in the History of the Baltic Countries Estonia and Latvia]. Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas. Baltische Länder [German History in Eastern Europe. Baltic Countries]. Berlin: Siedler Publ. Pp. 13–25. (In German).
Pistohlkors G. (hg.). (2002). Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas. Baltische Länder [German History in Eastern Europe. Baltic Countries]. Berlin: Siedler Publ. 607 p. (In German).
Radziminski A. (2019). Die Christianisierung der Bevölkerung und Entwicklung der kirchlichen Strukturen in Livland in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts [The Christianization of the Population and the Development of Ecclesiastical Structures in Livonia in the First Half of the 13th Century]. Die Kirche im mittelalterlichen Livland [The Church in Medieval Livonia]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 109–127. (Ecclesia Clerusque Temporibus Medii Aevi, 5). (In German).
Riis T. (1985). Die Administration Estlands zur Dänenzeit [The Administration of Estonia during the Danish Era]. Die Rolle der Ritterorden in der mittelalterlichen Kultur [The Role of the Military Orders in Medieval Culture]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 117–127. (In German).
Robleda I. (2009). Tallinn, capital de Estonia. Arqueología, Historia y Viajes sobre el Mundo Medieval. Vol. 31. Barcelona. Pp. 44–51.
Selart A. (2001). Confessional Conflict and Political Co-operation: Livonia and Russia in the Thirteenth Century. Crusade and Conversion on the Baltic Frontier, 1150–1500. Aldershot: Ashgate Publ. Pp. 151–176.
Selart A. (2002). Vnutrennyaya voyna v Livonii kontsa XIII v. i Pskov [Internal War in Livonia at the end of the XIII century. and Pskov]. Staroladozhskiy Sbornik. Vol. 5. Saint Petersburg; Staraya Ladoga: Staraуa Ladoga Historical-Architectural and Archaeological National Park Publ. Pp. 79–86. (In Russian).
Selart A. (2003). Pskov i Tartuskoye episkopstvo v 1230-kh gg. [Pskov and the Tartu bishopric in the 1230s.]. Arkheologiya i istoriya Pskova i Pskovskoy zemli: Materialy nauchnogo seminara za 2001–2002 gg. [Archaeology and History of Pskov and the Pskov Region: Materials of the Scientific Seminar for 2001–2002]. Pskov: Arkheologicheskiy tsentr. Pp. 191–199. (In Russian).
Selart A. (2007). Livland und die Rus' im 13. Jahrhundert [Livonia and the Rus' in the 13th Century]. Köln: Böhlau Publ. 373 p. (In German).
Selart A. (2009). Russians in Livonian Towns in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Segregation – Integration – Assimilation: Religious and Ethnic Groups in the Medieval Towns of Central and Eastern Europe. Farnham: Routledge Publ. Pp. 33–50. (Historical Urban Studies Series).
Selart A. (2009a). Nachalo gorodskoy zhizni v srednevekovoy Livonii i Rusi [The beginning of city life in medieval Livonia and Rus']. Baltiya v kontekste Severnogo prostranstva. Ot Srednevekov'ya do 40-kh godov XX veka [The Baltic Region in the Context of the Northern Space: From the Middle Ages to the 1940s]. Moscow: IWH RAS Publ. Pp. 84–102. (In Russian).
Selart. A. (2009b). Fridrich Chaseldorf, episkop Karelii [Friedrich Haseldorf, Bishop of Karelia]. Khrustalev D. G. Severnyye krestonostsy. Rus' v bor'be za sfery vliyaniya v Vostochnoy Pribaltike XII–XIII vv.: v 2-kh t. T. 2 [Northern Crusaders: Rus' in the Struggle for Spheres of Influence in the Eastern Baltic in the 12th–13th Centuries: in 2 vols. Vol. 2]. Saint Petersburg: Evraziya Publ. Pp. 272–279. (In Russian).
Selart A. (2010). Vlast' russkikh knyazey v Pribaltike v XI–XIII vv.: istochniki i interpretatsiya [Power of the Russian princes in the Baltic states in the XI – XIII centuries: Sources and interpretation]. Sosloviya, instituty i gosudarstvennaya vlast' v Rossii: Sredniye veka i ranneye Novoye vremya: sbornik statey pamyati akademika L. V. Cherepnina [Estates, Institutions, and State Power in Russia: The Middle Ages and Early Modern Period: A Collection of Articles in Memory of Academician L. V. Cherepnin]. Moscow: Yazyki slavyanskikh kul'tur Publ. Pp. 284–294. (In Russian).
Selart A. (2015a). Livonia, Rus’ and the Baltic Crusades in the Thirteenth Century. Leiden: Brill Publ. 385 p. (East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450).
Selart A. (2015b). Gab es eine altrussische Tributherrschaft in Estland (10–12 Jahrhundert)? [Was There an Old Russian Tributary Rule in Estonia (10th–12th Century)?]. Forschungen zur baltischen Geschichte [Studies on Baltic History]. Vol. 10. Pp. 11–30. (In German).
Selart A. (2023). Dorpat/Tartu: Geschichte einer Europäischen Kulturhauptstadt [Dorpat/Tartu: History of a European Capital of Culture]. Wien: Böhlau Publ. 224 p. (In German).
Shaskol'sky I. P. (1978). Bor'ba Rusi protiv krestonosnoy agressii na beregakh Baltiki v XII – XIII vv. [The struggle of Rus' against the crusading aggression on the banks of the Baltic in the 12th–13th centuries]. Leningrad: Nauka Publ. 246 p. (In Russian).
Shaskol'sky I. P. (1987). Bor'ba Rusi protiv shvedskoy ekspansii v Karelii. Konets XIII – nachalo XIV vv. [The struggle of Rus' against Swedish expansion in Karelia. The end of the XIII – beginning of the XIV centuries]. Petrozavodsk: Kareliya Publ. 141 p. (In Russian).
Shaskol'sky I. P. (1995). Nevskaya bitva 1240 g. v svete dannykh sovremennoy nauki [Neva Battle of 1240 in the light of the data of modern science]. Knyaz' Aleksandr Nevskiy i yego epokha: materialy nauchno-prakticheskoy konferentsii [Prince Alexander Nevsky and His Era: Research and Materials]. Saint Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin Publ. Pp. 15–23. (In Russian).
Skyum-Nielsen N. (2014). Estonia under Danish Rule. The North-Eastern frontiers of medieval Europe: the expansion of Latin christendom in the Baltic lands. Farnham: Routledge Publ. Pp. 203–226.
Sorokin P. E. (2015). The Construction of Landskrona on the Neva. Castella Maris Baltici XI: proceedings of a symposium held in Malmö, Sweden on the 27th of May to the 2nd of June 2012. Turku. P. 185–194.
Staecker J. (ed.). (2009). The Reception of Medieval Europe in the Baltic Sea Region: Papers of the XIIth Visby Symposium, Held at Gotland University. Visby: Gotland University Press Publ. 486 p.
Starodubets P. A. (1955). Knyazhestvo Koknese v bor'be s nemetskimi zakhvatchikami v Vostochnoy Pribaltike v nachale XIII v. [Principality of Koknes in the fight against German invaders in the East Baltic states at the beginning of the XIII century]. Sredniye veka. Vol. 7. Moscow; Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union Publ. Pp. 199–216. (In Russian).
Tarvel E. (1987). Livländische Chroniken des 13. Jahrhunderts als Quellen für die Geschiche des Schwertbrüderordens und Livlands [Livonian Chronicles of the 13th Century as Sources for the History of the Sword Brothers' Order and Livonia]. Werkstatt des Historikers der mittelalterlichen Ritterorden. Quellenkundliche Probleme und Forschungsmethoden [Workshop of the Historian of Medieval Knightly Orders: Source-related Problems and Research Methods]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika Publ. Pp. 175–184. (Ordines Militares. Colloquia Torunensia Historica, 4). (In German).
Tarvel E. (2004). Die Entstehung der grundherrschaftlichen und gutherrschaftlichen Agrarstrukturen in Estland im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert [The Emergence of Manorial and Estate-Based Agrarian Structures in Estonia in the 13th and 14th Centuries]. Die Ostseeraum und Kontinentaleuropa 1100–1600. Einflußnahme – Rezeption – Wandel [The Baltic Region and Continental Europe 1100–1600. Influence – Reception – Change]. Schwerin: Helms Publ. Pp. 119–122. (Culture clash or compromise, 8). (In German).
Taube M. V. (1935). Russische und litauische Fürsten an der Düna zur Zeit der deutschen Eroberung Livlands (XII. und XIII. Jahrhundert) [Russian and Lithuanian Princes on the Daugava River during the Time of the German Conquest of Livonia (12th and 13th Centuries)]. Jahrbücher für Kultur und Geschichte der Slaven [Yearbooks for the Culture and History of the Slavs]. Vol. 11. Pp. 367–502. (In German).
Urban W. (2001). The Frontier Thesis and the Baltic Crusades. Crusade and Conversion on the Baltic Frontier, 1140–1500. Aldershot: Burlington Publ. Pp. 45–71.
Valk H. (2009). Gorodishcha Vostochnoy Estonii i pokhod knyazya Yaroslava na Chud' [The Fortified Settlements of Eastern Estonia and Prince Yaroslav’s Campaign against the Chud]. Arkheologiya i istoriya Pskova i Pskovskoy zemli [Archaeology and History of Pskov and the Pskov Region]. Vol. 54. Pp. 393–406. (In Russian).
Wittram R. (1954). Baltische Geschichte: die Ostseelande Livland, Estland, Kurland 1180–1918: Grundzüge und Durchblicke [Baltic History: The Baltic Provinces of Livonia, Estonia, Courland 1180–1918: Fundamentals and Insights]. München: Oldenbourg Verlag Publ. 323 p. (In German).
Yanin V. L. (1998). Novgorod i Litva: pogranichnye situatsii XIII–XV vekov [Novgorod and Lithuania: Borderline situations of the XIII–XV centuries]. Moscow: Moscow State University Publ. 212 p. (In Russian).
Yastrebitskaya A. L. (1999). «Drang nach Osten» kak problema istoricheskogo poznaniya i tema novoy sotsial'noy istorii [“Drang nach Osten” as a problem of historical knowledge and the topic of new social history]. Slavyane i ikh sosedi. Srednie veka – rannee novoe vremya. Vyp. 9: Slavyane i nemtsy. 1000-letnee sosedstvo: mirnye svyazi i konflikty [Slavs and their neighbours. Middle Ages - Early Modern Times. Vol. 9: Slavs and Germans. 1000 Years of Neighbourhood: Peaceful Ties and Conflicts]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 5–12. (In Russian).
Yuchas M. A. (1989). Nemetskiy orden v trudakh ostforsherov [The German Order in the writings of the Ostforschers]. Drevneyshiye gosudarstva na territorii SSSR: materialy i issledovaniya. 1987 god [The Earliest States on the Territory of the USSR: Materials and Research. 1987]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Pp. 273–281. (In Russian).
